1. General questions on Neuroscience
What is neuroscience and why is it important?
Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system, particularly the brain. It explores how chemical processes in the brain shape our thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Neuroscience research helps us better understand how we learn, remember and dream, and why conditions such as depression and Alzheimer’s disease develop. This knowledge provides the foundation for better treatments for brain disorders.
How does the brain work, and what functions do different brain regions have?
The brain consists of billions of nerve cells (neurons) that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. Each brain region has its own function: the prefrontal cortex governs planning and decision-making, the hippocampus is crucial for memory, the amygdala processes emotions such as fear, and the brainstem controls basic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
For more information, visit the Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience – about the brain.
How does neuroscience research contribute to the treatment of brain disorders?
By understanding which molecules and processes are disrupted in neurological or psychiatric disorders, researchers can conduct targeted searches for new treatments. iCNS focuses specifically on the molecular basis of psychiatric symptoms. In the future, this knowledge could provide the foundation for new therapies.
Which Dutch institutes conduct neuroscience research?
Well-known institutes include the Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience (NIN), the Institute for Chemical Neuroscience (iCNS), and research groups at institutions such as the University of Amsterdam, Radboudumc, LUMC, UMC Utrecht, Erasmus MC and UMCG.
2. Brain function and processes
How does memory work in the brain?
Memory works through connections between nerve cells becoming stronger when you learn something. This is called synaptic plasticity. The hippocampus is essential for forming new memories. The more often you repeat something, the stronger these connections become and the better you remember it. Connections that are rarely used weaken, which contributes to forgetting.
What role do neurotransmitters play in the brain?
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals between nerve cells across synapses, the junctions between cells. They influence how cells respond and which signals are passed on. In this way, they help regulate almost everything: mood, movement, sleep, attention and memory. Well-known examples include dopamine (motivation and reward), serotonin (mood), GABA (inhibition and relaxation) and acetylcholine (learning and memory). Disruptions in neurotransmitter signalling may contribute to many psychiatric and neurological disorders.
How do emotions arise in the brain?
Emotions involve several brain regions working together. The amygdala responds rapidly to sensory input and helps trigger emotions such as fear or anger. The prefrontal cortex helps us understand and regulate these emotions. Hormones and neurotransmitters also have a major influence: oxytocin contributes to feelings of affection and connection, dopamine promotes motivation and reward, and endorphins contribute to feelings of pleasure and euphoria. The hypothalamus coordinates physical responses, such as a faster or slower heart rate. Emotions therefore involve a combination of brain activity and bodily responses that help you respond to your environment.
What is neuroplasticity, and how does it work?
Plasticity is the opposite of rigidity. Neuroplasticity is therefore the brain’s ability to adapt. Through learning, practice or following injury, connections between brain cells can become stronger or weaker, and new connections can form. The more often you do something, the stronger the associated brain network becomes—much like a path through a forest that becomes more clearly defined the more often you walk along it. This also helps explain why the brain can sometimes recover after a stroke: disrupted or weakened connections can sometimes be re-established or strengthened.
How does sleep work in the brain?
Sleep is influenced by environmental factors, the build-up of sleep pressure associated with adenosine, and changes in hormones such as melatonin and cortisol. During sleep, the brain moves through different stages. During deep sleep, waste products are cleared through the glymphatic system: cerebrospinal fluid flows through the brain and helps remove waste. Memories are also processed and stored. During REM sleep, the brain is highly active, much as it is when you are awake, and experiences from the day undergo further memory processing. Sleep is essentially the brain’s nightly cleaning and maintenance routine: essential for memory, concentration, mood and health.
What happens in the brain during addiction?
Addictive substances or behaviours can trigger large releases of dopamine in the brain’s reward system, often exceeding those associated with everyday experiences. This dopamine response reinforces the experience, encouraging you to seek out the substance or behaviour again. With repeated exposure, the brain adapts: dopamine receptors can become less responsive. You may need increasing amounts of the substance to achieve the same effect. Without it, a person may feel unwell, which intensifies their craving. These changes help explain why quitting is so difficult: the brain has changed at the molecular level.
3. Research
Which NWO Gravitation programmes focus on neurobiology?
iCNS is an NWO Gravitation programme awarded in 2024. It focuses on the molecular basis of psychiatric symptoms. Other relevant programmes can be found at www.nwo.nl.
How can I participate in neuroscience research?
There are several ways to contribute: as a brain donor, as a contributor, or through collaboration as a researcher or institution.
Explore the opportunities at www.i-cns.nl/en/contact or register as a brain donor at www.brainbank.nl/.
What is the Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience (NIN)?
The NIN is a leading research institute in Amsterdam that conducts fundamental brain research. It also manages the Netherlands Brain Bank. iCNS works closely with the NIN. Visit its website at https://nin.nl/.
4. Brain bank and brain donation
What is the brain bank, and how does it work?
The Netherlands Brain Bank collects brain tissue from deceased donors for scientific research. After death, the brain is carefully removed, preserved and cut into sections, with some tissue frozen at −80 degrees Celsius. Researchers worldwide can request tissue through strict procedures to study brain disorders. For more information, visit https://www.brainbank.nl/.
How can I become a brain donor?
You can register as a brain donor during your lifetime. This is separate from organ donation and must be arranged independently. You can register from the age of 18, even if you are healthy, as healthy brain tissue is essential for comparison. If you have a psychiatric disorder, your registration is particularly valuable for our research.
For more information and to register, visit https://www.brainbank.nl/.
What happens to donated brains in our research?
Donated brains are compared with brains from people without the condition being studied. This allows scientists to identify molecular changes associated with conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, depression or schizophrenia. This knowledge is essential for developing new treatments.
Why is brain donation important for neuroscience research into psychiatric disorders?
Many aspects of brain disorders, particularly psychiatric conditions, can only be studied directly in human brain tissue. Animal models and brain scans do not provide the complete picture. Donated tissue is therefore essential for uncovering the molecular basis of psychiatric symptoms. Brain donation is one of the most valuable contributions a person can make to this research.
5. Molecular and biological basis of brain diseases
What are the molecular mechanisms behind Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease?
In Alzheimer’s disease, two proteins accumulate in the brain: amyloid-beta (between cells) and tau (inside cells). These accumulations contribute to disrupted communication between neurons and the eventual loss of brain cells, leading to memory impairment.
In Parkinson’s disease, dopamine-producing cells in the substantia nigra die. A characteristic feature is the accumulation of the protein alpha-synuclein in structures called Lewy bodies. The loss of dopamine-producing cells contributes to typical motor symptoms: tremor, stiffness and slow movements.
What happens in the brain during depression?
Depression involves changes in brain circuits and neurotransmitter signalling—the chemical communication between brain cells. Serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline are among the neurotransmitters involved. Changes in their signalling may contribute to low mood, fatigue and loss of motivation, but depression cannot simply be explained by a shortage of these substances. Many antidepressants work by increasing the availability of certain neurotransmitters, although their therapeutic effects involve more complex changes in brain function.
What happens in the brain in schizophrenia?
Schizophrenia is thought to involve changes in the signalling of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, GABA and glutamate. Glutamate generally stimulates brain cells, GABA inhibits them, and dopamine can have stimulating or inhibitory effects depending on where and how it acts. Increased dopamine activity in some brain regions is associated with delusions and hallucinations. At the same time, communication between brain regions involved in thinking, feeling and perception may be less well coordinated. Subtle structural differences can also be observed in the brain. Together, these changes may contribute to the symptoms of schizophrenia.
What happens in the brain in anxiety disorders?
In anxiety disorders, the amygdala—a region that helps link sensory information to emotions such as fear—can be overactive. At the same time, the prefrontal cortex, which helps regulate emotional responses, may function less effectively. At the molecular level, changes in signalling involving GABA (which inhibits brain cell activity), glutamate (which stimulates it) and serotonin may play a role. As a result, the brain can respond disproportionately to stimuli, even when there is no actual danger.
How does psychosis develop, and what are the neuroscientific explanations?
Psychosis is associated with increased dopamine activity in certain brain pathways involved in motivation, reward and assigning significance to experiences. This can cause stimuli to be interpreted differently. Dopamine helps the brain determine what is important; when this signalling is disrupted, everyday events or thoughts may seem unusually significant or threatening. This can contribute to hallucinations—hearing or seeing things that are not there—and delusions, beliefs that do not correspond to reality. Changes in glutamate signalling, which generally stimulates brain cells, may also play a role.
How do brain processes contribute to ADHD?
In ADHD, the prefrontal cortex—the region involved in planning, decision-making and impulse control—and its connections with other brain regions function differently on average. Differences in dopamine and noradrenaline signalling, which help regulate attention, motivation and reward processing, can make it harder to sustain attention, control impulses and organise tasks.
How do brain processes contribute to PTSD?
In PTSD, the amygdala can be overactive, responding disproportionately to cues that bring back memories of trauma. At the same time, the prefrontal cortex, which helps regulate emotions, may function less effectively. The hippocampus, which is important for memory processing and placing memories in context, may also function differently. These changes can contribute to traumatic memories remaining intense and vivid, making it difficult to experience them as events belonging to the past.
What is the relationship between psychiatry and neuroscience?
Psychiatry describes and treats mental disorders; neuroscience investigates the biological and molecular processes underlying brain function. iCNS connects the two: by uncovering the molecular basis of psychiatric symptoms, we build the scientific knowledge needed for better diagnostics and future treatments.
6. Practical information
How can I contact iCNS?
Go to our contact page: https://i-cns.nl/en/contact.
Are there events or lectures on neuroscience?
Look at our news page for the latest news and coming events: https://i-cns.nl/en/news.
Where can I find reliable information on brain diseases?
The Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience is a good place to start: https://nin.nl/.